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Résultats 1 à 10 de 15 (page 1 de 2)
comma before because
A dependent clause beginning with because gives the reason for the action in the main clause. As a result, it usually gives essential information and cannot be separated from the main part of the sentence by a comma. The cat went into the shed because it was frightened. Ms. Harris lost because she changed her position on a key issue. However, a problem arises when the main verb is in the negative: e.g. did not go in, did not lose. In that case, the meaning of the sentence depends on whether you use a comma. With a comma If you add a comma to the sentence, you create a separation between not and because: The cat did not go into the shed, because it was frightened. Ms. Harris did not lose, because she changed her position on a key issue. These sentences clearly mean that the cat did not go into the shed and that Ms. Harris did not lose. The because clauses give the reason why the main action did not take place. Without a comma If you omit the comma, however, you create a close link between because and not: The cat did not go into the shed because it was frightened. Ms. Harris did not lose because she changed her position on a key issue. The absence of a comma reverses the meaning: in this case, the because clause is eliminating a reason for the action in the main clause. The cat did go into the shed—but not because it was frightened; and Ms. Harris did lose—but not because she changed her position. Because the reader may not realize the significance of the absent comma, it may be better to reword these sentences to make the meaning completely clear: It was not out of fear that the cat went into the shed. Ms. Harris’ defeat was not due to the change in her position on a key issue.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
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absolute phrases
A phrase is a group of words that forms a unit simpler than a sentence. A phrase does not contain a finite (conjugated) verb. Most phrases modify a particular word in a sentence. However, an absolute phrase modifies an entire sentence instead of a single word: The birds having flown off, the cat climbed down from the tree. Unlike an ordinary phrase, the birds having flown off does not modify any word in the rest of the sentence, such as cat or climbed. This type of phrase is called absolute because it is self-contained: it usually has its own subject (in this case, birds) and does not need to attach to any word in the sentence. Structure of an absolute phrase Absolute phrases can have any of the structures shown below. Noun + participle Her work completed, Amanda flew home. [noun work + participle completed] We scrambled along the shore, the waves splashing at our feet. [noun waves + participle splashing] Noun + other modifier His mind on other matters, Jordan didn’t notice the growing storm. [noun mind + prepositional phrase on other matters] The children set off for school, faces glum, to begin the fall term. [noun faces + adjective glum] Pronoun + infinitive The audience filed out, some to return home, others to gather at the pub. [pronoun some + infinitive to return; pronoun others + infinitive to gather] Common expressions as absolute phrases Some participle and infinitive phrases are common expressions that are considered absolute. Since they do not need to attach to a particular word, they can be placed at the beginning (or end) of a sentence without dangling. Here are some examples: Financially speaking, Bob’s lifestyle changes worked well. Talking of music, have you heard the new band at Taco Jack’s? A storm is brewing, judging by the dark clouds. To get back to the main point, the budget needs to be bigger. The food was mediocre, to say the least. Punctuation tip As the above examples show, an absolute phrase is set off with a comma (or with a pair of commas if it occurs in the middle of the sentence).Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
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The comma
Comma usage is in some respects a question of personal writing style: some writers use commas liberally, while others prefer to use them sparingly. Most modern North American style guides now recommend using fewer commas rather than more, so when faced with the option of using a comma or not, you may find it wise to refrain. For instance, the use of a comma before the and in a series is usually optional, and many writers choose to eliminate it, provided there is no danger of misreading the sentence, as in the following examples: We bought scarves, mittens and sweaters before leaving for Iceland. (comma unnecessary before and) We ate apples, plums, and strawberry and kiwi compote. (comma needed before and for clarity) Comma Usage Use a comma before a co-ordinating conjunction that joins independent clauses (unless the independent clauses are very short): I wrapped the fresh trout in three layers of newspaper, but my van still smelled like fish for the next week. (comma with two independent clauses) She invited him to her party and he accepted. (comma unnecessary with short clauses) Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause and, often, after an introductory phrase (unless the phrase is very short): After the hospital had completed its fund-raising campaign, an anonymous donor contributed an additional $10,000. (comma after introductory adverb clause) From the east wall to the west, the cottage measures twenty feet. (comma after introductory prepositional phrase) In the bottom drawer you will find some pink spandex tights. (no comma with short, closely related phrase) Use a comma to separate items in a series: Playing in a band can be exciting, but many people do not realize the hardships involved: constant rehearsals, playing until 2 a.m., handling drunken audience members, and transporting heavy equipment to and from gigs. (the comma preceding and is optional unless needed to prevent misreading) Use commas to set off non-restrictive elements and other parenthetical elements. A non-restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that does not restrict or limit the meaning of the word it is modifying. It is, in a sense, interrupting material that adds extra information to a sentence. Even though removing the non-restrictive element would result in some loss of meaning, the sentence would still make sense without it. You should usually set off non-restrictive elements with commas: The people of Haiti, who for decades have lived with grinding poverty and mind-numbing violence, are unfamiliar with the workings of a true democracy. A restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that limits the meaning of what it modifies and is essential to the basic idea expressed in the sentence. You should not set off restrictive elements with commas: Those residents of Ottawa who do not hold secure, well-paying jobs must resent the common portrayal of the city as a land of opportunity. Note that you can use two other punctuation marks to set off non-restrictive elements or other parenthetical information: parentheses and dashes. Enclosing parenthetical information in parentheses reduces the importance of that information: Mr. Grundy’s driving record (with one small exception) was exemplary. Placing parenthetical information between dashes has the opposite effect: it emphasizes the material: Mr. Grundy’s driving record—with one exception—was exemplary. As a general rule, you should set off parenthetical information with commas. Superfluous Commas Equally important in understanding how to use commas effectively is knowing when not to use them. While this decision is sometimes a matter of personal taste, there are certain instances when you should definitely avoid a comma. Do not use a comma to separate the subject from its predicate: [WRONG] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15, will save you thirty percent of the membership cost. [RIGHT] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15 will save you thirty percent of the membership cost. Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its object or its subject complement, or a preposition from its object: [WRONG] I hope to mail to you before Christmas, a current snapshot of my dog Benji. [RIGHT] I hope to mail to you before Christmas a current snapshot of my dog Benji. [WRONG] She travelled around the world with, a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup tent and a camera. [RIGHT] She travelled around the world with a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup tent and a camera. Do not misuse a comma after a co-ordinating conjunction: [WRONG] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof but, the family was used to the noise and paid it no attention. [RIGHT] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof, but the family was used to the noise and paid it no attention. Do not use commas to set off words and short phrases (especially introductory ones) that are not parenthetical or that are very slightly so: [WRONG] After dinner, we will play badminton. [RIGHT] After dinner we will play badminton. Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements: [WRONG] The fingers, on his left hand, are bigger than those on his right. [RIGHT] The fingers on his left hand are bigger than those on his right. Do not use a comma before the first item or after the last item of a series: [WRONG] The treasure chest contained, three wigs, some costume jewellery and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money. [RIGHT] The treasure chest contained three wigs, some costume jewellery and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money. [WRONG] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps, if you want to improve in the martial arts. [RIGHT] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps if you want to improve in the martial arts.Source : HyperGrammar 2 (notions de base de la grammaire anglaise)
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commas with coordinate elements, serial commas
Elements of equal rank or relation in a sentence are said to be coordinate. The coordinate elements may be words or phrases in a series, or they may be entire clauses. On this page Words, phrases and dependent clauses Omitting the final comma Appositives with coordinate elements Independent clauses Adjectives Antithetic expressions Words, phrases and dependent clauses Items in a series may be separated by commas: Complacency, urbanity, sentimentality, whimsicality They may also be linked by coordinating conjunctions such as and or or: the good, the bad and the ugly economists, sociologists or political scientists On his camping trip, Nathan slept in a tent, cooked over a fire and canoed for miles. Cheryl didn’t explain where she had gone, what she was doing or when she would be back. Omitting the final comma Opinions differ on whether and when a comma should be inserted before the final and or or in a sequence. In keeping with the general trend toward less punctuation, the final comma is best omitted where clarity permits, unless there is a need to emphasize the last element in the series. This comma is usually omitted in the names of firms and always before an ampersand: Cohen, Hansen and Larose Deeble, Froom & Associates Ltd. On the other hand, it is usually inserted if the items in the series are phrases or clauses of some length, if emphasis is desired, or if omission of the comma might lead to ambiguity or misunderstanding: She embraced him once again, turned away, and then walked out the door forever. [comma for emphasis] Tenders were submitted by Domicile Developments Inc., East End Construction, Krista, and Ryan and Scheper. [comma for clarity] A comma is also required before etc.: He brought in the wine, the glasses, etc. Note, however, that the last item in a series is not followed by a comma (unless the sentence requires a comma for another reason): Alan packed sandals, shorts and T-shirts but forgot socks and sunscreen. but Alan packed sandals, shorts and T-shirts, but he forgot socks and sunscreen. (In this example, a comma is required before “but” because it is joining two independent clauses.) Appositives with coordinate elements A more complex situation occurs when apposition commas are used together with coordinating commas, as illustrated below: Carla Tavares, a recent MBA graduate, three students and a technician set up the experiment. The sentence should be rephrased so that no non-restrictive appositive occurs within a coordinate element: A recent MBA graduate named Carla Tavares, three students and a technician set up the experiment. Alternatively, semicolons may be used to separate elements in a complex series: Jane Stewart, MP for Brandt, Ont.; Stan Keyes, MP for Hamilton West, Ont.; John Nunziata, MP for York-South Weston … Independent clauses A comma is normally used to separate two main clauses in a compound sentence when they are joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, yet or for): “They are often called individualists, and in economic matters they were, but in social matters, the dominating concept was that of good neighbourliness.” (M. M. Fahrni) If the clauses are short or closely related, the commas may be omitted before and, but, or or nor: He opened the letter and then he read the contents. Life is short but art is long. Coordinate clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction are usually separated by a heavier mark of punctuation than the comma: “Canadian poetry must now be judged by achievement; it does not need to be criticized for not being like other poetries.” (Margaret Atwood) A comma will suffice, however, if the clauses are short, or if the writer wishes to emphasize a contrast or lead the reader on to the following clause as quickly as possible: There are good regulations, there are bad regulations. It was not the duration of the pilot project that caused concern, it was the size of the project team. It is a common error to confuse a simple sentence having a compound predicate with a compound sentence requiring a comma between clauses. Note the difference between the following examples: She investigated the matter and then wrote a detailed report. (simple sentence) She investigated the matter, and then the committee began its work. (compound sentence) Where the clauses of a compound sentence are joined by a conjunctive adverb (such as however, instead, meanwhile, otherwise, similarly, so, still, then, therefore or yet), a semicolon is called for: The climbers had planned to scale the rock face; however, it was too sheer. Adjectives A series of adjectives modifying a noun may or may not be coordinate. The adjectives are coordinate if their order does not affect the meaning, in which case they should be separated by a comma. If they are not coordinate, that is, if one adjective modifies the phrase formed by the following adjective(s) plus the noun, then they should not be separated by a comma: a rich, creamy sauce but a naive domestic burgundy Adjectives of both types may of course occur together: a tender, succulent young chicken The rule stated above, however, is not an infallible guide. When in doubt omit the comma, as in: The plain honest truth is that he is a liar. The final adjective in the series should not be separated from the following noun by a comma: Nations require strong, fair, open, decisive government. Antithetic expressions Antithetic expressions are usually separated by a comma: This proposal is not to be tossed lightly aside, but to be hurled with great force. However, short expressions of this type may not require a comma: The more wit the less courage.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
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Commas that count: Necessary commas
Ah, the comma. Doesn’t every wordsmith have some tiny wrinkles, etched somewhere in the mid-brow region, because of this capricious mark? Nearly everyone has questions about the comma. Should we use a comma with and? What about after an introductory element? Is the comma even necessary today? Or is it a quaint, old-fashioned remnant of an era when readers had time to savour sentences, to pause between ideas instead of rushing madly onward, scanning for content before tackling the next task, as we so often do now? It’s true that modern writers use commas more sparingly than their forebears. Pick up a novel by, say, Jane Austen. Open it to any page and you’ll see them—dozens of commas, swarming through sentences like ants through spilled syrup. But things are different today. Today our commas, like our technology, like our workplaces, like our very lives, are streamlined and economical, designed for speed and efficiency, not for lingering and reflection. Still, some commas are as necessary today as ever. Properly placed commas enable readers to follow ideas and interpret meaning. Moreover, they prevent misreading. In the sentence Lynn, Massachusetts is an excellent location for our new headquarters, the omission of the comma after Massachusetts makes us think the author is assuring Lynn that Massachusetts is a great location. The key to understanding the modern comma is to know when it’s required and when it’s not. This is no easy task; the guidelines for this minuscule mark fill dozens of pages in some texts. Thankfully, Sheridan Baker, in his fifth edition of The Practical Stylist (1981), divides necessary commas into just four categories: The introducer: after an introductory clause or phrase The coordinator: between two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) The inserter: a pair around an inserted word or remark The linker: when adding a word, phrase or clause to the main sentence The introducer When the introductory element is a clause, the decision is easy: use a comma. (Remember, a clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a verb.) After the hospital had completed its fundraising campaign, an anonymous donor contributed an additional $300,000. (introductory adverbial clause) With an introductory phrase, the decision is harder. (A phrase is a group of words that does not contain both a subject and a verb.) If the phrase is relatively long, use a comma. From the east wall to the west, the "dream cottage" advertised in the real estate brochure measured just twenty feet. (long prepositional phrase) If the phrase is short and naturally flows into what follows, do not use a comma. By midnight my new boyfriend was slavering and baying at the moon. (short prepositional phrase that flows on) If the phrase is short but does not naturally flow into what follows, use a comma to show the separation. A comma is particularly important after an introductory participial phrase—one that contains the present participle (-ing form) or the past participle (-ed or irregular form) of a verb. Seeing his transformation, I wanted to flee like the wind. (participial phrase) Paralyzed by fear, I stood transfixed while my hirsute companion lumbered forward, wild-eyed and hungry. (participial phrase) Despite his fangs, I still thought my date was kind of cute. (phrase does not flow naturally into what follows) Fearful yet curious, I debated what to do. (phrase does not flow naturally into what follows) The introducer may also appear after an introductory word that does not flow directly into the rest of the sentence, such as a sentence adverb (an adverb that modifies the entire sentence rather than just one word in it). Fortunately, I still had the leftover rare steak I had taken away from our lavish dinner together, so I threw it in his path to distract him. (introductory adverb) The coordinator Place a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two independent clauses (clauses that can stand as full sentences). Remember to put the comma before the conjunction, not after. René wrapped the fresh fish in three layers of newspaper, but his van still smelled like trout for the next week. (two independent clauses) If the independent clauses are short and closely related, it is preferable to omit the comma. He chose the restaurant and she chose the movie. (short, related independent clauses) It’s important to check that the coordinating conjunction is really joining two independent clauses and not two phrases. The dog whipped his head around and caught the Frisbee between his teeth. (two phrases) The inserter Think of the two commas around insertions as detour signs: the first tells you where the detour begins, the second where it ends. Margaret Atwood’s first novel, Surfacing, contains many themes and images that run through the author’s later works. (insertion) Sometimes it’s hard to decide if a group of words is a true insertion. An insertion interrupts, meaning you can usually remove it without changing the sentence’s main message. The grammatical term for an interrupting element is non-restrictive. A non-restrictive element must be set off with a pair of commas. The bingo employees, who had finished their work, went home for the day. (main message: the employees went home for the day) A restrictive element, on the other hand, does not interrupt the message; it is integral to it. Restrictive elements are not set off with commas. The bingo employees who had finished their work went home for the day. (main message: only the employees who had finished their work went home) The linker Use a comma whenever you link extra (often non-restrictive) information to the main sentence. The added information often provides elaboration. My sister loves low-budget horror movies from the fifties and sixties, especially those featuring killer vegetables from outer space. (added phrase) The sea was like a boiling cauldron, even though the wind had abated hours earlier. (added clause) Commas also link elements in a list or series. Nathan took a radio, a hair dryer, the latest Vanity Fair and a canister of pepper spray on his first wilderness camping trip. (items in a list) Should there be a comma before and in a list? It’s a perennial question, one that authorities differ on. The bottom line—either approach is acceptable, though the modern tendency is to omit the comma unless it’s needed to prevent misreading. Eileen’s favourite sandwiches are tuna, watercress, ham, and cheese and bacon. (comma required before and for clarity) A pause for reflection Knowing when we need commas is only one navigation point; knowing when we don’t is another. Between the two lies a vast and bewildering territory where comma use is subjective, dependent on such vagaries as authorial intent, emphasis and personal taste. So understanding the principles of necessary commas likely won’t erase our wrinkles (we’re not talking Botox here). But it may relax them, somewhat. Related quiz Test yourself—Commas that count: Necessary commasSource : Peck’s English Pointers (articles et exercices sur la langue anglaise)
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conjunctive adverb
We think of adverbs as modifiers, but conjunctive adverbs are a special breed. Their function is not to modify, but to connect. A conjunctive adverb is used to create a smooth connection between two sentences or independent clauses. The conjunctive adverb shows the logical relationship between one idea and the next and thus helps to provide coherence in a written text. Relationships shown by conjunctive adverbs Below are some of the most common conjunctive adverbs, grouped according to the relationships they show: Addition: also, besides, furthermore, likewise, moreover, similarly Contrast: however, instead, rather, still, yet Emphasis: certainly, indeed, surely, truly Result: accordingly, consequently, otherwise, therefore Sequence: first, second, third; afterward, finally, lastly, later, next, then For example, to connect two similar ideas, you can use a conjunctive adverb that shows addition: Alain bought two tents. He also got sleeping bags and air mattresses. To connect two opposite ideas, you can use a conjunctive adverb that shows contrast: Debra was sure she had hidden her jewelry in a safe place. Still, thieves broke in and stole it during the night. To show a cause-effect connection, you can use a conjunctive adverb showing result: March was unusually warm; therefore, the snow was entirely gone by month’s end. Punctuation with a conjunctive adverb Depending on where you place the conjunctive adverb in the sentence, you can choose one of the following punctuation patterns. At the beginning of a clause: period or semicolon before the adverb, comma after it. My daughter’s ringette team won the game. Afterward, the girls celebrated with pizza and ice cream. You’d better fill up the tank; otherwise, we might run out of gas. In the middle of a clause: comma before and after the adverb. The porch was beginning to sag. The paint, moreover, was flaking badly. At the end of a clause: comma before the adverb, period after it. Critics gave the film consistently poor reviews; movie-goers loved it, however. Note: There are some exceptions to these punctuation rules. Commas are not always necessary when a conjunctive adverb is in the middle of a clause; let your ear guide you. Omit commas if the adverb fits smoothly into the sentence: It soon became too dark to go on. Jeff therefore beached the canoe and set up camp. Use commas if the adverb interrupts the flow of the sentence: Kaitlin was determined to get her licence. Every evening, therefore, she practised driving for hours. A common punctuation error The most common error that occurs with conjunctive adverbs is a punctuation error called a comma splice (a kind of run-on). This error occurs when the writer joins two sentences with a comma and a conjunctive adverb. Run-on: The game was almost lost, however our team scored a goal. Remember, a conjunctive adverb is not a conjunction. An adverb creates a weaker connection, and it must have a full stop (period or semicolon) before it when it is connecting two sentences. Correct: The game was almost lost. However, our team scored a goal. Correct: The game was almost lost; however, our team scored a goal.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
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compound sentences
A compound sentence is a sentence formed from two or more simple sentences, or independent clauses (IC): Megan cut the wood, and Ryan stacked it. Note that the two clauses forming the compound sentence must be related in meaning. Because of the logical connection between the two clauses in the example above, they fit together easily in one sentence. Three methods of forming compound sentences There are three ways of joining independent clauses into a compound sentence: with a coordinating conjunction (one of the fanboys); with a semicolon; or with a semicolon and a transitional expression. Method 1: Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (IC, cc IC) You can use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (cc) to join two or more independent clauses into a compound sentence. (A coordinating conjunction is one of the fanboys: for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so.) The resulting sentence has the structure IC, cc IC: For: The two stopped to eat, for the work had made them hungry. And: The afternoon had been long, and hours had gone by since lunch. Nor: There was no house nearby, nor did they have any food with them. But: They wanted to pick blueberries as a snack, but a bear growled at them from the berry patch. Or: Should they set off for home now, or should they decide to work a little longer? Yet: There was still work to do, yet they needed to rest and eat. So: They were starving and exhausted, so they went home. Note that the comma in the above sentences comes before the conjunction, not after it. Avoiding run-ons: If the independent clauses are very short, parallel and closely related, it is acceptable to use only a comma or a conjunction to join them: Megan cut the wood, Ryan stacked it. Megan cut the wood and Ryan stacked it. But between longer clauses, it is important to use both a comma and a conjunction: Megan cut the wood into one-and-a-half-foot logs, and Ryan stacked them carefully along the rear of the cabin. If you used a comma alone in the last example, you would have a comma splice, a type of run-on sentence. Since it is never wrong to use a comma and conjunction together in this kind of compound sentence, it is best to do so in every case to avoid the risk of error. Method 2: Use a semicolon (IC; IC) Like a period, a semicolon (;) creates a stop between two independent clauses. However, the clause after the semicolon does not begin with a capital. In this case, the sentence has the structure IC; IC. This method works readily with some of the examples: The two stopped to eat; the work had made them hungry. The afternoon had been long; hours had gone by since lunch. However, it would be awkward to use a semicolon by itself to form some compound sentences. The sentence below, for example, is confusing: Incorrect: There was still work to do; they needed to rest and eat. These two clauses express contrasting ideas. We need a contrast word to make the connection clear. In this case, you might use the contrast conjunctions but or yet with a comma (Method 1), or you might decide to use Method 3. Method 3: Use a semicolon with a transitional expression (IC; transition, IC) A transitional expression is a word or phrase that shows the relationship between two ideas. A semicolon with a transitional expression often makes a smoother connection than a semicolon alone. There are many transitional expressions showing different kinds of relationships. Here are a few common examples: to add a similar idea: also, in addition, moreover to show contrast: however, in contrast, on the other hand to indicate a result: therefore, as a result, consequently to introduce an example: for example, for instance to list points in order: first, second, third; next; then Note that a comma is used after the transitional expression. The sentence has the structure IC; transition, IC: The work had made them hungry; therefore, they stopped to eat. The job was not done; on the other hand, they needed to rest and eat. Avoiding run-ons: Keep in mind that a transitional expression is not a conjunction; it does not join sentences grammatically. Therefore, a period or a semicolon is needed before a transitional expression between two independent clauses: They wanted to pick blueberries as a snack. However, a bear growled at them from the berry patch. They wanted to pick blueberries as a snack; however, a bear growled at them from the berry patch. If you use a comma instead of a period or a semicolon, you will have a comma splice run-on: Run-on: They wanted to pick blueberries as a snack, however, a bear growled at them from the berry patch. Be careful to avoid this type of run-on; it is a very common error.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
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Commas that clutter: Unnecessary commas
One of the best sentences in Strunk and White’s popular writing guide, The Elements of Style, is this: "A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts." I would go further: a sentence should contain no unnecessary commas for the same reason that a symphony should have no unnecessary pauses. True, commas add rhythm, and more importantly clarity, to our writing. But, if we use too many, of them, our writing becomes difficult, for people, to read, and our ideas end up fragmented, instead of connected. For years participants in my grammar and writing workshops have magnanimously imparted their golden rule for commas: use a comma whenever you would take a breath. And for years I have regretfully but pointedly burst their bubble. That simple rule, which so many have clung to since their tender years, works occasionally (even often, if you’re a speechwriter or playwright), but it also gives rise to the superfluous commas that pollute our prose, bobbing up disconcertingly like plastic bottles in the ocean. While comma use is sometimes a matter of personal taste, there are certain places where this mark does not belong. Grammatical bonds What grammar hath joined together, let no comma put asunder. Don’t let a comma split the grammatical bond between a subject and its verb, a verb and its object (or its subject complement, if it’s a linking verb like to be) or a preposition and its object, even if you think a pause is in order. NO All duly registered members of this exclusive English equestrian club, are permitted unlimited access to the club’s stables and pubs. (splitting subject and verb) NO The mugger was stunned to find that the elegant businessman had in his pockets, only three dollars and half a liverwurst sandwich. (splitting verb and object) NO The only thing the lottery winners wanted was, to live their lives as they had before becoming millionaires. (splitting verb and subject complement) NO We mailed illustrated concert programs to, every symphony subscriber and every music store in town. (splitting preposition and object) Note that it is perfectly acceptable to interrupt these grammatical unions with a parenthetical element and a pair of commas. YES The mugger was stunned to find that the elegant businessman had in his pockets, besides a soiled handkerchief, only three dollars and half a liverwurst sandwich. Coordinating conjunctions As explained in "Commas That Count," the coordinator is a comma that precedes a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) that is joining two independent clauses. Be sure to put the comma before the conjunction, not after it. NO The Green Party backbencher asked her question three times, but, the cabinet minister still refused to answer directly. (remove comma after but) When the elements joined by a coordinating conjunction are something other than independent clauses, it’s best to dispense with the comma (though see "Bending the rules" at the end of this article). NO After Tiffany got Leonardo DiCaprio’s autograph, but before she could look at it, she fainted cold at the star’s feet. (conjunction joins two dependent clauses) NO Fluffy white cumulus clouds, and clear autumn air made it a perfect day to stay inside and watch TV. (conjunction joins two phrases) Restrictive elements A restrictive element is the opposite of a parenthetical element. It is a word or group of words, usually descriptive, that is necessary to the sentence because it defines or limits (restricts) the word it describes. Do not use commas with restrictive elements. NO The soup tureen, from the antique shop, was actually less expensive than the one I saw at the neighbourhood flea market. (element is restrictive, not parenthetical) To test whether an element is restrictive, try omitting it from the sentence. If the sentence’s main message is no longer clear, the element is restrictive. If the main message is fine, the element is parenthetical. NO Bob Dylan wrote the ballad, "The Wedding Song," in 1974. (can’t omit the element; it is restrictive) YES Bob Dylan’s first wife, Sara, left him soon after he wrote "The Wedding Song" for her. (can omit the element; it is parenthetical) Series Commas between items in a series stand for the word and. Do not place a comma before the first item or after the last, since you can’t use and in either spot. NO The developers received passionate pleas and lengthy petitions from, store owners, local residents, and area building managers. (remove first comma) NO The children waved flags, beat on toy drums, and blew noisemakers, as the parade passed by. (remove last comma) Remember that the comma before and in a series is optional. And with a series of modifiers? Therein lies a bewildering comma conundrum: sometimes you need commas; sometimes you don’t. The decision depends on whether the modifiers are coordinate or cumulative. Coordinate modifiers all independently modify the same word. You can rearrange their order and insert the word and between them. A series of coordinate modifiers requires commas. YES She is a careful, conscientious, knowledgeable editor. YES The caterers prepared an array of rich, colourful, tasty sweets for the buffet. Cumulative modifiers do not separately and equally modify the word they appear with. Instead, they build or lean upon one another. You cannot change their order or insert and between them. A series of cumulative modifiers takes no commas. YES She is a bilingual copy editor. YES The caterers prepared a vegetarian bean soup for the buffet. To complicate matters, a series may include both coordinate and cumulative modifiers. But if you apply the dual test of rearranging and inserting and, you should get the commas right. YES She is a skilled bilingual copy editor. (one coordinate modifier) YES She is an underpaid, skilled bilingual copy editor. (two coordinate modifiers) Bending the rules Punctuation is like any art: once you have mastered the principles, you can bend them. It’s fine to depart from the comma rules from time to time—if you have a good reason. For clarity: The question is, will he be able to compete in the Iron Man race and publish his book of haiku verse before he turns forty? (comma between verb and subject complement) For emphasis: He embraced her once again, and then walked out the door forever. (comma with coordinating conjunction joining two phrases) For rhythm: The parched hiker felt the hot sweet juicy trickle of the orange run down her throat. (commas omitted with coordinate adjectives) George Bernard Shaw once said, "The golden rule is that there are no golden rules." That’s pretty much what I tell my workshop participants as I strip away their lifelong illusions about commas and breathing. Instead of one golden rule, we have many plastic ones—but that’s far more practical, especially if we plan to break one now and again. Related quiz Test yourself—Commas that clutter: Unnecessary commasSource : Peck’s English Pointers (articles et exercices sur la langue anglaise)
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adjective clause
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. An adjective clause is a clause that acts as an adjective. That is, it modifies the noun or pronoun that comes before it: Dr. Bondar, who went into space in 1992, was our first female astronaut. [clause modifies noun Dr. Bondar] Anyone who is afraid of doing too much will end up doing too little. [clause modifies pronoun anyone] The three most common adjective clause signals Most adjective clauses start with the relative pronouns which, who or that. This payment, which is due on Tuesday, should arrive on Monday. The person who stole my purse will get a bottle of water, three bandaids, a used kleenex and half a veggie burger. The jacket that I bought last week is already missing a button. Relative pronouns can act as a subject or an object in the adjective clause. (For instance, in the examples above, the pronouns which and who are the subjects of the verbs is and stole, while that is the object of the verb bought.) We sometimes omit that when it is the object of a verb or preposition: The jacket I bought last week is already missing a button. [= that I bought last week; that is object of verb bought] I can’t find the envelope I put the cheque in. [= that I put the cheque in; that is object of preposition in] For more information on relative pronouns, see the article relative pronouns, who, whom, whose, which, that. Other adjective clause signals The relative adverbs when, where and why can also start an adjective clause: Noon is the hour when the sun is overhead. [clause modifies noun hour] The shop where we bought the camera was near the bridge. [clause modifies noun shop] I don’t know the reason why Michel was late. [clause modifies noun reason] For information on how to punctuate adjective clauses, see the article commas with adjective clauses.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
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Fun facts about translation
An English quiz on the topic of translation, in which the user must answer various language-related questions.There are over 7 000 languages in the world, and not everyone speaks more than one! Translators play an important role in helping people to communicate.Take our quiz to learn some interesting facts about translation while putting your language skills to the test!1. French is one of the languages that most translated in the world.isare2. The Bible is thought to be the most translated publication. In the previous sentence, the modifier "most translated" is in the form.positivecomparativesuperlative3. In the following sentence, how should the title in brackets be formatted: The novel [The Little Prince] has been translated into hundreds of languages and dialects?Roman font, no quotation marksRoman font, in quotation marksitalic font, no quotation marks4. Over 600 000 people translation as a profession.practisepractice5. Identify the appositive in the following sentence: The Index Translationum, a UNESCO database, is a list of books translated in some 100 countries.a UNESCO databasetranslatedin some 100 countries6. "To translate," which means "to express the sense of a word in another language," is of Latin origin. In the previous sentence, "which" is a .personal pronounrelative pronoundemonstrative pronoun7. Identify the error in the following sentence: Predating the common era, it is believed that the translation profession is over 2 000 years old!dangling modifiercomma splicefaulty comparison8. Scientist Émilie de Breteuil translated Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation into French. The French word for "scientist" is .scientistscientistescientifique9. Fill in the blank to make the following sentence parallel: The Cyrillic alphabet, named for translator Saint Cyril, is used today to write .Russian, Bulgarian and to write the Serbian languageRussian, Bulgarian and the Serbian languageRussian, Bulgarian and Serbian10. "Writers make national literature while translators make universal literature."" José Saramago noted "," José Saramago noted. "," José Saramago noted, "Source : Jeux du Portail linguistique du Canada
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