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Results 81 to 90 of 321 (page 9 of 33)
jurisprudence, case law, precedents
In most of the English-speaking world, jurisprudence is the science or philosophy of law. In the jurisprudence course, students will examine the reasoning behind court decisions. In North America, jurisprudence also refers to the body of previous court decisions, which is properly known as case law or precedents. Our group undertook an analysis of Canadian jurisprudence (or case law) since the Charter of Rights came into effect in 1982.Source: Writing Tips Plus (English language problems and rules)
Number of views: 1,512
necessary prerequisite, prerequisite
Redundancies are words that unnecessarily repeat information. Because a prerequisite is a necessary prior condition, the modifier necessary in the familiar expression necessary prerequisite is redundant. Managing the environmental conditions for eels has become a prerequisite (not necessary prerequisite) for the second stage of development.Source: Writing Tips Plus (English language problems and rules)
Number of views: 1,483
Plain Language: Making Your Message Intelligible
Heather Matsune (Language Update, Volume 4, Number 3, 2007, page 12) Our previous article dealt with readability—setting up the language and design of your document as a framework on which to build a clear message. With that framework in place, you can start filling in the content. If you aren’t careful, though, you may end up saying something you don’t mean. Or, rather, your readers may not interpret your message the way you intended. Avoiding that kind of ambiguity is not always easy: it takes planning and discipline to select relevant information, give it an appropriate structure and ensure the coherence of the whole. And that’s what gives your message meaning and makes it intelligible.RELEVANCE Consider your e-mail inbox: how likely would you be to open an e-mail with the subject line "Internal policy no. 102"? You might ignore it for a while, file it away or even delete it without reading it. But you wouldn’t hesitate to read that e-mail if you knew it was going to tell you what to do if you saw an unauthorized person in your office building. A more effective subject line might have been "Report trespassers in your building." As a reader, you would see right away that the information in that e-mail is relevant to you. As a writer, you need to put in the effort to make your documents just as relevant to all your readers.The information in your documents must be complete and concise. While you need to include all the necessary information, you also have to limit yourself to only the necessary information. Your message will be more easily understood if it provides the essentials with no filler. The relevance of your information also depends on its being thoroughly researched and factually correct, as well as adapted to your target readers. Bear in mind that you may need to update your documents occasionally to keep them complete and accurate.STRUCTURE Once you’re sure of your information, you can break it down and rearrange it until you find the most appropriate structure. As you work at this, focus on the message you want to convey, and try to organize your information to make that point obvious. Drawing up an outline before you start writing can keep you on track and will help you avoid leaving something out or being repetitive.Organizing your informationBring together all the information related to one idea, and then arrange that information in a logical order. If you do this for each of your main ideas, you can then organize the larger structure of your document. There are different ways to arrange those main ideas, including the following:moving from general to specific ideas (or vice versa) contrasting positive with negative elements presenting the most important ideas first followed by the less important ones progressing in chronological orderProviding reference pointsWrite an introduction for your document that sets out the main ideas in the order in which they will be developed. Then use headings to show precisely where those main ideas are addressed, as well as subheadings to give structure to those ideas. If your reference points are simple, concise and explicit, your readers will know what to expect. And if the words you pick for the headings and subheadings also appear in the body of the text, you will eliminate some guesswork for your readers.Try to choose the right structure for the different types of information you want to convey. Consider using step-by-step instructions, bulleted lists, tables and graphics, where appropriate. For long documents, include a table of contents. Anything you can do to make the reading task easier will make the message more intelligible.COHERENCE Coherence is fundamental to the intelligibility of a document: it helps you develop your ideas clearly by connecting them from sentence to sentence and paragraph to paragraph. To tie the whole document together like this, you must make sure it flows naturally and is unambiguous.Creating a flowStructure and ideas guide readers visually and logically through a coherent document. Creating that flow helps you achieve the goal of your communication (to inform, convince, raise awareness, etc.), which is to say that it helps get the point of your document across.Using connecting words and phrases (because, however, in addition, etc.) is one way to reinforce the flow of your document. They are vital to good writing because they link parts of sentences, complete sentences or even whole paragraphs. Most of the time it is easier to understand a long sentence that contains a connector than two short sentences with no connector. Consider the following example:Claire is pregnant. She was fired. Claire was fired because she is pregnant.That said, there is such a thing as too many connectors: applied too liberally, they can weigh down your document and inhibit its coherence. In some cases, you may need to use a few sentences to make the transition from one idea to the next.Eliminating ambiguityAmbiguity makes your documents less coherent. To eliminate ambiguity, write so that each of your ideas can be interpreted in only one way.When your meaning cannot be understood from context alone, there are a number of ways to eliminate the ambiguity:Put your phrases in the right order.Instead of writingThere was an accident while the students were writing an exam on the lawn.WriteWhile the students were writing an exam, there was an accident on the lawn.Make sure that each pronoun refers to only one antecedent.In the following example, the personal pronoun "he" could refer to the ambassador or the minister:The ambassador is going to the ceremony to meet the minister. He has to return to his office at 9 o’clock.To clear up that ambiguity, you could have writtenThe ambassador is going to the ceremony to meet the minister, who has to return to his office at 9 o’clock.or The ambassador is going to the ceremony to meet the minister. The ambassador has to return to his office at 9 o’clock.Don’t let the object(s) in a sentence create ambiguity.It is unclear whether this example refers to the rules set out by the committee or the rules that the committee must follow:Are you familiar with the committee’s rules?Depending on which rules are in question, you could have writtenAre you familiar with the rules set by the committee?or Are you familiar with the rules the committee must follow?Make implied words explicit.Instead of writingI congratulated Raymond, but not Daniel.Write I congratulated Raymond, but I did not congratulate Daniel.or I congratulated Raymond, but Daniel did not.Unclear grammatical structure and implied words aren’t the only causes of ambiguity. Here are a few more things you can do to make reading your documents easier:Avoid using references that your readers won’t understand.Menu items often seem more appealing in the language of Molière.Reading the expression la langue de Molière in a French document would make perfect sense to francophone readers. But the concept may not translate as well into an English document for anglophone or allophone readers. In this case, it would be more straightforward, and less likely to cause confusion, to say "French" instead of "the language of Molière."Avoid using expressions that can evoke comical imagery or otherwise lead to confusion.Instead of writingCity officials gave the marathoners the runaround.Write City officials misinformed the marathoners.Intelligibility is a fairly broad topic, and we have only touched on the basics as they apply to plain language. Nonetheless, if you work at making your writing relevant, structured and coherent, you will more clearly communicate your ideas and thereby improve the intelligibility of your documents.Source: Favourite Articles (language professionals’ insights on English language issues)
Number of views: 1,477
except in the case of, with the exception of
To write plainly and concisely, use except for instead of the roundabout phrases except in the case of and with the exception of. Other possibilities include apart from, but for, excluding and other than. Wordy: Except in the case of one minor injury, the training activities ran perfectly. Concise: Except for one minor injury, the training activities ran perfectly. Wordy: All the months are 30 or 31 days long, with the exception of February, which has 28 days. Concise: All the months are 30 or 31 days long apart from February, which has 28 days.Source: Writing Tips Plus (English language problems and rules)
Number of views: 1,478
begin, commence, start
Begin is the more general term: Until I can start my car, I cannot begin to finish my chores. The meeting will begin at 8:30 exactly. My course in Canadian history begins (or starts) on Tuesday, May 15. Some people say the world began with a big bang. Do not begin writing until the bell rings. Commence is more formal than begin or start: The ceremony will commence promptly at 11 a.m. Start usually applies to physical motion: Ladies and gentlemen, start your engines!Source: Writing Tips Plus (English language problems and rules)
Number of views: 1,472
attention, attentive, attentiveness
Attentive describes a person who is caring, helpful or watchful. Monique’s neighbours were very attentive after her debilitating accident. Attentive teachers know when their students are having problems. Attentiveness is the noun form. The innkeeper’s attentiveness to his guests’ comfort was much appreciated. Attention indicates interest, care or concentration. Thank you for your attention to this matter. Listening to the radio while I work interferes with my attention to detail. The medication is affecting Juan’s attention span.Source: Writing Tips Plus (English language problems and rules)
Number of views: 1,475
luxuriant, luxurious, luxury, deluxe, de luxe, luxe
Luxuriant refers to abundant growth. The lagoon was surrounded by luxuriant vegetation. Luxurious concerns luxury, that which is costly or of high quality. The CEO’s office was full of luxurious furniture. Luxury is properly a noun; however, it is now used as an adjective, especially in advertising. Sleeping in on the weekend is a luxury for many parents. When my father was a child, a car was viewed as a luxury item. Though some authors frown on the use of deluxe (sometimes spelled de luxe), it is a long–accepted adjective meaning “elegant and costly.” This is our deluxe model: it does cost slightly more than the standard condominium unit. Luxe—sometimes seen in advertising—is informal and can be replaced by such terms as elegant, opulent, sumptuous or expensive, depending on the context. Allesandra is a model and wears nothing but luxe fashions.Source: Writing Tips Plus (English language problems and rules)
Number of views: 1,478
Plain Language: Breaking Down the Literacy Barrier
Heather Matsune (Language Update, Volume 4, Number 1, 2007, page 9) If a reader cannot understand a document, then the message of that document is not communicated. It’s a simple enough concept on the surface. And, on the surface, the right response is to write better. It is easy for language professionals to get caught up in wordsmithing. We can’t help it: it’s fun, and we’re good at it. Certainly, an elegantly turned and grammatically impeccable phrase is nothing to apologize for. But sometimes we expect our readers to have the same linguistic proficiency as we do, and sometimes we just forget who they are. Either way, if we’re not careful, we can hinder communication.Canadians want to be communicated with clearly and directly, and that is their right. What many writers do not recognize, however, is that the state of literacy in Canada is not what we would like to believe. According to the 2003 International Adult Literacy and Skills Survey (IALSS), 48% of the general population age 16 and over falls below the minimum level needed to function in society. That’s 12 million Canadian adults. When those low literacy levels meet with the complex administrative jargon and vague rationale typical of so many government documents, communication fails.Literacy defined Low literacy levels are among the greatest communication barriers for Canadians. Of course, there is more to literacy than knowing how to read and write. It has to do with how well people understand and can then use printed information at home, at work and in the community. And, by extension, it has to do with how well they can achieve their goals and develop their knowledge and potential.Because printed information comes in a variety of styles and can require a variety of skills, the IALSS broke down the umbrella term "literacy" into two categories:Prose literacyUnderstanding and using basic information in texts, such as news items, brochures and manualsDocument literacyLocating and using information in various formats, including application forms, maps and chartsLiteracy is measured in five levels:LevelIndividuals at this level1Are hard to reach with any kind of printExample of ability: reading information on pain-killer packaging2Can read, but not well Can deal only with text that is clear and simple Can handle only one task at a timeExample of ability: reading and filling out a job application for a fast-food restaurant3Read well, depending on context Need constant skill upgrading Are at the minimum level to function in societyExample of ability: reading and processing instructions in a manual4 and 5Can process complex materials that require specialized knowledgeLiteracy in CanadaAccording to the IALSS, many Canadians have trouble reading even the most basic type of texts. Close to half of adults come in below level 3, the minimum level, for prose literacy.Obviously, education is crucial in determining literacy skills. Prose literacy scores for youth and adults increase fairly consistently for each additional year of schooling completed. That said, while the link between education and literacy is strong, it is not absolute: some 20% of Canadian university graduates still rank at level 2, and approximately 2% fit the level 1 profile.Literacy is also affected when people communicate in a language other than their first. This is especially true in Canada, owing to its linguistic duality and openness to immigration.Occupation and age also influence literacy proficiency. In general, highly skilled professions correspond with high literacy, but as age increases, literacy tends to decrease. That may explain why approximately 82% of Canadians aged 66 and over are at levels 1 and 2. It does not, however, explain why approximately 38% of Canadians between age 16 and 25 are at the lower levels.The IALSS concluded that low literacy crosses all demographic groups. Given the high frequency of low literacy, it is both alarming and discouraging to learn that most government documents require literacy proficiency at level 3, 4 or 5. Millions of Canadians cannot understand what the government is trying to tell them, never mind what they are supposed to do with that information. Communication is failing. This is a problem.Plain language is the solution Plain language makes successful communication possible. Often misunderstood as a sort of linguistic dumbing down, plain language is really about putting the reader first. This does not mean adopting an overtly simplistic style, nor does it mean abandoning the conventions of language. What it does mean is putting together a message that the people you are writing for can easily read, understand and use. Appropriate vocabulary, user-friendly formatting and sound writing techniques are all musts for meeting readers’ needs, and content must be logical and concise.A document written in plain language makes information accessible to all your readers, no matter their literacy level, which makes it easier for them to do whatever it is they need to do. Whether addressing a nuclear physicist or an elementary school student, a message must be clear in order to be understood. Plain language becomes even more of a necessity when messages target people with low literacy. And although plain language may seem like a straightforward concept, words like remuneration, innocuous and quid pro quo still find their way into documents written for the general public. Given the IALSS statistics, it’s a safe bet that not all Canadians are familiar with such terms.Benefits of plain language There really is no downside to using plain language. Language professionals, the general public and the government would all benefit in different ways.Language professionals wouldwork more efficiently, more easily achieving their communication objectives increase their productivity, saving time and money be better understood by the general public, improving the quality of services offered to citizensThe general public wouldfind it easier to read, understand and use information be better equipped to exercise their rights and meet their obligations save time and money and be more satisfied with service qualityThe Government of Canada wouldbe better able to adapt its services to the needs and expectations of the general public reduce program costs and improve overall performance cut operating costsThe three fundamental traits of plain language This article has explained what plain language is and why it is important. Articles in the next three issues will address how to use it, based on the three fundamental traits of plain language: readability, intelligibility and usability. Here’s a preview of what you’ll find in the upcoming articles.Readability A readable text is one that a person can make sense of with minimal effort. Vocabulary, syntax and presentation are some of the elements that contribute to a document’s readability. Basically, readability focuses on the writing rather than the meaning.Intelligibility The principles of intelligibility are clarity, relevance, coherence and cohesion. Anything to do with the message of the text falls into this category, including content and organization.Usability Usability is closely related to effectiveness. While a document could be perfectly clear, it still might not be effective. Is the type of document appropriate for the readers? Are the tasks concrete, easy to do and broken down into steps? Those are just some of the questions writers need to ask to determine whether they have achieved their objective. After all, the true tests of successful communication are the action and its result.Language professionals need to recognize that readability, intelligibility and usability are closely related concepts and that there is more to good communication than words. Ultimately, the readers are the ones interpreting the message of a text and judging the writer’s work.Source: Favourite Articles (language professionals’ insights on English language issues)
Number of views: 1,467
absolutely essential
Redundancies are words that repeat information unnecessarily. Because essential already expresses an absolute idea, the modifier absolutely is redundant. For variety, use a synonym such as crucial, vital, necessary or important. Redundant: It is absolutely essential that we finish the project this week. Recommended: It is essential (or crucial or vital) that we finish the project this week.Source: Writing Tips Plus (English language problems and rules)
Number of views: 1,468
materiel, matériel, material
Materiel or matériel refers to the equipment, apparatus and supplies (as distinct from personnel) of an organization, especially the military. Materiel and matériel do not require italics. Canadian Forces personnel and materiel were greatly appreciated during the Manitoba floods. Which do you need more urgently: troops or matériel? In all other contexts, material is the appropriate choice. Thanks to public donations, the refugees’ material needs have been met. What kind of material is Francine’s suit made of? Once Rudy has the raw materials, he will build a greenhouse.Source: Writing Tips Plus (English language problems and rules)
Number of views: 1,462