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The parts of speech: Introduction
Traditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech: the verb, the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction and the interjection. Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in another. The next examples show how the part of speech of a word can change from one sentence to the next. Following these examples is a series of sections on the individual parts of speech and an exercise. Example Explanation Books are made of ink, paper and glue. In this sentence, books is a noun, the subject of the sentence. Joe waits patiently while Bridget books the tickets. Here books is a verb and its subject is Bridget. We walk down the street. In this sentence, walk is a verb and its subject is the pronoun we. The letter carrier stood on the walk. In this example, walk is a noun that is part of a prepositional phrase describing where the letter carrier stood. The town council decided to build a new jail. Here jail is a noun, which is the object of the infinitive phrase to build. The police officer told us that if we did not leave immediately he would jail us. Here jail is part of the compound verb would jail. The parents heard high-pitched cries in the middle of the night. In this sentence, cries is a noun acting as the direct object of the verb heard. Their colicky baby cries all night long and all day long. Here cries is a verb that describes the actions of the subject of the sentence, i.e. the baby. The next sections explain each of the parts of speech in detail. When you have finished looking at them, you might want to test yourself by trying the exercise. The details Verb - Next Page Noun Pronoun Adjective Adverb Preposition Conjunction Interjection Review exercise: Parts of speechSource: HyperGrammar 2 (basics of English grammar)
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Review exercise: Parts of speech
Identify the part of speech of the highlighted word in each of the following sentences.1. The clown chased a dog around the ring and then fell flat on her face. verb noun pronoun adjective adverb preposition conjunction interjection 2. The geese indolently waddled across the intersection. verb noun pronoun adjective adverb preposition conjunction interjection 3. Yikes! I’m late for work. verb noun pronoun adjective adverb preposition conjunction…Source: HyperGrammar 2 (basics of English grammar)
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Objects and complements
Objects A verb may be followed by an object that completes the meaning of the verb. Two kinds of objects follow verbs: direct objects and indirect objects. To determine if a verb has a direct object, isolate the verb and make it into a question by placing whom? or what? after it. The answer—if there is one—is the direct object, as in the following examples: Direct object The advertising executive drove a flashy red Porsche. Direct object Her staff gave her a bouquet of flowers. The second sentence above also contains an indirect object (her). An indirect object (which, like a direct object, is always a noun or pronoun) is, in a sense, the recipient of the direct object. To determine if a verb has an indirect object, isolate the verb and ask to whom?, to what?, for whom? or for what? after it. The answer is the indirect object. Not all verbs are followed by objects, as in the following sentences: The guest speaker rose from her chair to protest. After work, Randy usually jogs around the canal. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs Verbs that take objects are known as transitive verbs. Verbs not followed by objects are called intransitive verbs. Some verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, depending on the context, as in the following examples: Transitive I hope the Senators win the next game. The verb win has a direct object (the next game) and is therefore a transitive verb. Intransitive Did we win? The verb win has no direct object and is therefore an intransitive verb. Subject Complements In addition to transitive verbs and intransitive verbs, there are linking verbs. The word or phrase which follows a linking verb is called a subject complement (not an object). The most common linking verb is be. Other linking verbs are become, seem, appear, feel, grow, look, smell, taste and sound, among others. Note that some of these can be linking verbs, transitive verbs or intransitive verbs, depending on how you use them, as in the following examples: Linking verb with subject complement He was a radiologist before he became a full-time yoga instructor. Linking verb with subject complement Your homemade chili smells delicious. Transitive verb with direct object I can’t smell anything with this terrible cold. Intransitive verb with no object The interior of the new Buick smells strongly of fish. Note that a subject complement can be either a noun (radiologist, instructor) or an adjective (delicious). Object Complements An object complement is similar to a subject complement, except that it modifies an object rather than a subject. In this example of a subject complement, The driver seems tired. the adjective tired modifies the noun driver, which is the subject of the sentence. Sometimes, however, the noun will be an object, as in the following example: I consider the driver tired. In this case, the noun driver is the direct object of the verb consider, but the adjective tired is still acting as its complement. In general, verbs that have to do with perception, judgment or change can cause their direct objects to take an object complement, as in the following sentences: Paint it black. The judge ruled her out of order. I saw the Prime Minister campaigning. In each of the above examples, you could reconstruct the last part of the sentence into a sentence of its own using a subject complement: it is black, she is out of order, the Prime Minister is campaigning.Source: HyperGrammar 2 (basics of English grammar)
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Noun
A noun is a word used to name a person, place or thing, an animal or abstract idea. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns: Late last year our neighbours bought a gazebo. Maureen Forrester was an opera singer. The bus inspector looked at all the passengers’ passes. According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed by fire. Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving. A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb. Noun Gender Many common nouns, like engineer or teacher, refer to both men and women. In the past, many English nouns would change form depending on their gender—for example, a man was called an author, a woman an authoress. This use of gender-specific nouns is very rare today. As far as possible, job titles should not imply that the job can be filled only by members of one sex. Use feminine nouns when women are referred to, or gender-inclusive nouns when a man or woman is not specifically referred to: spokeswoman/spokesperson/representative not spokesman chairwoman/chairperson/chair not chairman councillor not councilman or alderman technician not repairman trade worker not journeyman cleaner not cleaning woman Noun Plurals Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding s or es, as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences: Matthew rarely told the truth if he thought he was going to be reprimanded. Many people do not believe that truths are self-evident. As they walked through the empty house, they were startled by an unexpected echo. Bridget liked to shout into the quarry and listen to the echoes. Joe tripped over a box carelessly left in the hallway. Since we are moving, we will need many boxes. Other nouns form the plural by changing the last letter before adding s. Some nouns ending in f form the plural by deleting the f and adding ves. Some nouns ending in y form the plural by deleting the y and adding ies, as in the examples below: Some nouns ending in f. The harbour at Marble Mountain has one wharf. There are several wharves in Halifax Harbour. Some nouns ending in y. Warsaw is their favourite city because it reminds them of their courtship. The vacation my grandparents won includes trips to twelve European cities. Other nouns form the plural irregularly. The women shouted, "Are you a mouse or a man?" All five men admitted that they were afraid of mice. If English is your first language, you probably know most of them already: when in doubt, consult a good dictionary. Possessive Nouns In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become possessive by adding an apostrophe and the letter s. You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does not end in s by adding an apostrophe and s, as in the following examples: The red suitcase is Cassandra’s. The only luggage that was lost was the minister’s. The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant’s screams. The miner’s face was covered in coal dust. You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in s by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and s, as in the following examples: The bus’s seats are very uncomfortable. The bus’ seats are very uncomfortable. The zoologist accidentally crushed the platypus’s eggs. The zoologist accidentally crushed the platypus’ eggs. Felicia Hemans’s poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron’s. Felicia Hemans’ poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron’s. You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in s by adding an apostrophe and s, as in the following examples: The children’s mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch. The sheep’s pen was mucked out every day. The men’s hockey team will play as soon as the women’s team is finished. The hunter followed the moose’s trail all morning and all afternoon. You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that ends in s by adding an apostrophe, as in the following examples: The speech was interrupted by the dogs’ barking, the ducks’ quacking and the babies’ squalling. The janitors’ room is downstairs and to the left. My uncle spent many hours trying to find the squirrels’ nest. The archivist quickly finished repairing the diaries’ bindings. Politics is often the subject of my roommates’ many late night debates. Using Possessive Nouns Note that a noun in the possessive case frequently functions as an adjective modifying another noun. In the following example, The miner’s face was covered in coal dust. the possessive noun miner’s modifies the noun face and together with the article the, they make up the noun phrase that is the sentence’s subject. In the sentence below, The speech was interrupted by the dogs’ barking, the ducks’ quacking and the babies’ squalling. each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive noun dogs’ modifies barking, ducks’ modifies quacking, and babies’ modifies squalling. In the example below, The zoologist accidentally crushed the platypus’s eggs. the possessive noun platypus’s modifies the noun eggs and the noun phrase the platypus’s eggs is the direct object of the verb crushed. In the following sentence, My uncle spent many hours trying to find the squirrels’ nest. the possessive noun squirrels’ modifies the noun nest and the noun phrase the squirrels’ nest is the object of the infinitive phrase to find. Types of Nouns There are many different types of nouns. Some nouns, such as Canada or Bridget, are capitalized and others, such as badger or tree, are not (unless they start a sentence or appear in a title). In fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types: proper, common, concrete, abstract, countable (also called the count noun), non-countable (also called the mass noun) and collective. You should note that nouns may belong to more than one type. For example, a noun may be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or collective. Proper Nouns Always capitalize a proper noun, as it represents the name of a specific person, place or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organizations, religions and their holy texts and adherents are all proper nouns. Note that a proper noun is the opposite of a common noun. In each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted: The Maroons were transported from Jamaica and forced to build the fortifications in Halifax. Many people dread Monday mornings. Labour Day is celebrated on the first Monday in September. Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran. Last year, I had a Baptist, a Buddhist, and a Sikh as roommates. Common Nouns A common noun refers to a person, place or thing in a general sense and is the opposite of a proper noun. It should be written with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted: According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 kilometres away. All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded by beetles this summer. Some people insist on having six different kinds of mustard in their cupboards. The road crew was startled by the sight of three moose crossing the road. Workers in Third-World countries are often underpaid. You may sometimes make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the following examples: The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing the high increase in their rent. The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less expensive than meals in the cafeteria. Many witches refer to the Renaissance as the Burning Times. The Diary of Anne Frank is often a child’s first introduction to the history of the Holocaust. Concrete Nouns A concrete noun names anything (or anyone) that can be perceived through the physical senses (touch, sight, taste, hearing and smell). A concrete noun is the opposite of an abstract noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns: The judge handed the files to the clerk. Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves. The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had a new roof. As the car drove past the park, the thump of a disco tune overwhelmed the string quartet’s rendition of a minuet. The bookbinder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board. Abstract Nouns An abstract noun names anything that cannot be perceived through the five physical senses (touch, sight, taste, hearing and smell), and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns: Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought. Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood. Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp. Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically. Countable Nouns A countable (or count) noun has both a singular and plural form, and names anything (or any being) that can be counted. A countable noun can be made plural and take a plural verb in a sentence. It is the opposite of a non-countable noun and a collective noun. In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns: We painted the table red and the chairs blue. Since he inherited his aunt’s library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing his books. Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock. The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane. Over the course of twenty-seven years, the doctor delivered just over eight hundred babies. Non-Countable Nouns A non-countable (or mass) noun does not have a plural form and refers to something that is usually not counted. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. It is similar to a collective noun, and is the opposite of a countable noun. The highlighted words in the following examples are non-countable nouns: Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen. Oxygen is essential to human life. The word oxygen cannot normally be made plural. Since oxygen is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb is rather than the plural verb are. We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with us when we moved. The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room. As a non-countable noun, furniture has no plural and takes the singular verb is heaped. The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed. Gravel is more expensive than I thought. The noun gravel has no plural. Since gravel is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form is. Collective Nouns A collective noun names a group of things, animals or persons. You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole. It is important to recognize collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun. In each of the following examples, the highlighted word is a collective noun: The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture. The collective noun flock takes the singular verb spends. The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight. The collective noun jury is the subject of the singular compound verb is dining. The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon. Here the collective noun committee takes the singular verb meets. The class was startled by the bursting light bulb. Class is a collective noun and takes the singular compound verb was startled.Source: HyperGrammar 2 (basics of English grammar)
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Noun and pronoun characteristics
Nouns and pronouns have three major characteristics: case, number and gender. Noun and pronoun case The case of a noun or pronoun determines how it can be used in a phrase or clause. There are three cases in modern English: Subject case The subject case is used for a noun or pronoun that stands alone. It can also be the subject of a clause, or the subject complement, or stand in apposition to any of these. Object case The object case is used for the object of a preposition, verb or verbal, or for any noun or pronoun that stands in apposition to one of these. Possessive case The possessive case is used for any noun or pronoun that acts an an adjective, implicitly or explicitly modifying another element in the sentence. Nouns always take the same form in the subject case and the object case, while pronouns often change their form (he, him). Both nouns and pronouns usually change their form (man’s, his) for the possessive case: Subject case The man travelled to Newfoundland. He travelled to Newfoundland. Object case The taxi drove the man to the airport. The taxi drove him to the airport. Possessive case The baggage handlers lost the man’s suitcase. The baggage handlers lost his suitcase. For further information, see the sections on possessive nouns, possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives. Noun and pronoun number The number of a noun or pronoun is singular if it refers to one thing or plural if it refers to more than one thing. When the noun or pronoun is the subject, then its number also affects the verb. Note the difference in number in the following examples: Singular That woman is concerned about this issue. She is concerned about this issue. Plural Those women are concerned about this issue. They are concerned about this issue. Note that the plural pronoun they is in the process of becoming singular in spoken English. For example, one might say A person called and they did not leave their name. This construction allows the speaker to avoid identifying the gender of the person and has been common in speech for many years. You should be aware, however, that some people still consider it unacceptable in formal writing. For more information, see the section on noun plurals. Noun and pronoun gender Unlike the Romance languages (e.g. French, Spanish and Italian), English has three genders for nouns and pronouns: masculine, feminine and neuter. Generally, the English language uses natural gender rather than grammatical gender—that is, the gender of a word is normally based on its biology so there is little need to remember whether a word is masculine or feminine. A noun that refers to something with male genitalia is masculine, a noun that refers to something with female genitalia is feminine and most other nouns are neuter by default. There was a time when the masculine gender was used by default when the gender of a person referred to was unknown, but very few people accept this usage any longer. However, there are a few tricky points of usage. First, one may refer to animals using the neuter gender or their natural gender: Neuter What a beautiful dog! Does it bite? Natural gender What a beautiful dog! Does she bite? Note that natural gender is often reserved for pets or animals with names (Jumbo, Flipper, Fido). Second, mythical beings (such as gods) are usually assigned to a natural gender, even if they are not regarded as having genitalia: God is great. God is good. Let us thank her for our food. Finally, people sometimes assign natural gender to inanimate objects, especially if they live or work closely with them. In the past, men (who were dominant in the professions and trades) tended to refer to large machines as being feminine: She is a fine ship. For more information, see the section on gender-specific nouns. Noun and pronoun person Personal pronouns always belong to one of three persons: first person if they refer to the speaker or writer (or to a group including the speaker or writer); second person if they refer to the audience of the speaker or writer (or to a group including the audience); and third person if they refer to anyone else. If the noun or pronoun is the subject, then its person also affects the verb. Nouns and other types of pronouns (e.g. demonstrative pronouns) are always in the third person. Note the differences in person in the following examples: First person I will come tomorrow. Bob showed the budget to us. Second person You should not forget to vote. Where is your coat? Third person It arrived yesterday. How can you stand working with them? Traditionally, the third person is used in formal writing, but some people now accept the first person. The important thing is being consistent throughout the text.Source: HyperGrammar 2 (basics of English grammar)
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Apposition
When two words, clauses, or phrases stand close together and share the same part of the sentence, they are in apposition and are called appositives. In fact, an appositive is very much like a subject complement—without the linking verb: Subject complement My brother is a research associate. Appositive My brother the research associate works at a large polling firm. Subject complement Jean became a magistrate. Appositive I have never met Jean the magistrate.Source: HyperGrammar 2 (basics of English grammar)
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