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Why Canadian spelling is different
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A blog post about how Canadian spelling came to be Canadian.
Canadian spelling isn’t quite the same as anyone else’s.
It’s no secret that we Canadians spell differently from our cousins in the United States:
We put a “u” in words like “colour” and “favour”; Americans leave it out
We spell “theatre” and “centre” with an “re” at the end; they spell them with an “er”
We write cheques for things we order from catalogues, while they order from catalogs and write checks
So how did these differences come about?
The roots of the issue
After the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, French became the language of government. And when French scribes heard English words, they wrote them according to French spelling rules.
Meanwhile, the low status of English meant that there was no written standard, so even English writers used their own spellings. By the late Middle Ages, English spelling varied greatly.
To add to the confusion, an important change called the Great Vowel Shift took place in spoken English between the 14th and 18th centuries. Over this period, the way words sounded gradually became quite different from the way they were written. As a result, English spelling became less and less logical.
During the 15th and 16th centuries, a number of scholars tried to standardize English spelling or even reform it, but with little success.
England’s Samuel Johnson
In 1755, Samuel Johnson published his 40,000-word Dictionary of the English Language. Johnson didn’t try to reform spelling to make it more logical. Instead, he simply chose the most common spellings in use at the time.
It is interesting to note that most words in his dictionary are spelled the same way they are today. The biggest difference is that words written today with an “ic” all end in “ick”: “comick,” “magick,” “musick,” “romantick.”
Johnson’s dictionary was very popular and became the main reference for spelling in England for more than 150 years. But although English spelling had become standardized, it hadn’t gotten any more logical.
America’s Noah Webster
Several decades after Johnson’s dictionary appeared, Noah Webster (of Webster’s Dictionary fame) set out to reform American spelling by making it simpler.
For instance, he dropped the “u” from words like “colour” and the “k” from words like “musick.” He also adopted the “er” ending for words like “center” and the “ize” ending for verbs like “organize.”
Webster’s 1828 dictionary and 1829 speller became the primary spelling references for generations of Americans.
Canada’s Sir John A.
As time went on, American spelling practices began to creep over the border. In 1890, Sir John A. Macdonald was asked what spellings should be used in Canada.
Our first prime minister felt strongly that all parts of the British Empire should hold to the system used in England. And he ordered that “the English practice be uniformly followed” in all government documents.
Thus, British spelling was upheld as the standard in Canada.
Canadian spelling today
Language changes; and in spite of Sir John A., our neighbours to the south have made some inroads into Canadian spelling.
For example, we’ve adopted the American ending “ize” instead of “ise” in verbs like “organize,” “civilize” and “specialize.” And like the Americans, we spell “encyclopedia” (and most other words like it) with an “e” instead of an “ae.”
So if our spelling is partly American and partly British, how can we be sure we’re choosing the right forms for a Canadian audience? The best bet is to check a reliable Canadian dictionary (such as the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, the Gage Canadian Dictionary or the Collins Canadian Dictionary) for the spellings accepted in Canada. When more than one spelling is listed, it is the first one that most Canadians prefer.
What do you think about Canadian spelling? Would you do anything to change or improve it? Tell us your opinion in a comment.
Source : Blogue Nos langues (billets de collaborateurs et collaboratrices)
Canadian spelling challenge: Pretty tricky, eh?
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A quiz on Canadian spelling.
Choose the correct Canadian spelling for each set of words.
1.
Set 1
honourhonorhonur2.
Set 2
honorablehonourable3.
Set 3
honoraryhonourary4.
Set 4
travelingtravelling5.
Set 5
authorauthour6.
Set 6
tyretire7.
Set 7
toquetuque8.
Set 8
nationalizenationalise9.
Set 9
theater centertheatre centretheatre centertheater centre10.
Set 10
humouristhumorist
Source : Jeux du Portail linguistique du Canada
Canadian, British and American: It’s all English, but the spelling is different
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An English blog post about the variant spellings used in Canada, Britain and America.
I’m a proud Canadian. I grew up in the Niagara (Falls) Region, so I watched and listened to Toronto and Buffalo television and radio stations. I was still in elementary school when I became aware of the differences between Canadian and American English.
“Canadian English is a variety of English in its own right,” Oxford’s Guide to Canadian English Usage (1997) reads. “In the past, however, Canadians seeking information or advice on their language had to look to either British or American dictionaries and usage guides, neither of which reflected the distinctiveness of Canadian English.”
“Because Canada has its own political, cultural, historical, and geographical realities, it has its own words to describe those realities…. dictionaries inevitably describe and reflect the language and culture of the country in which they are edited,” reads the Canadian Oxford Dictionary. “Canadians need a dictionary that defines the words used by Canadians and also records how Canadians (not the Americans or the British) pronounce and spell words.”
Most Canadian style guides, including The Canadian Press Stylebook: A Guide for Writers and Editors and The Canadian Press Caps and Spellings, are based on the Canadian Oxford Dictionary. The standard American dictionary is the Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. The Concise Oxford Dictionary is the usual option for British writers and editors.
Sheila Ethier shared a great blog post called “Why Canadian spelling is different.” In it, she looked at the people at the root of those differences, including England’s Samuel Johnson, America’s Noah Webster and Canada’s Sir John A. Macdonald.
In this post, I wanted to share some of the ways in which our Canadian hybrid spelling patterns are different from those of our British and American cousins, so readers like you know what to be on the lookout for.
How they differ
The 10 categories of spelling variations listed in Editing Canadian English: A Guide for Editors, Writers, and Everyone Who Works with Words are based on Robert Ireland’s Canadian Spelling: An Empirical and Historical Survey of Selected Works (1979 York University PhD dissertation).
“The spellings of colour and centre, in particular, have in recent years come to be greatly (even passionately) preferred over the corresponding American variants; indeed, some Canadians view them as cultural touchstones, important for their symbolic role in distinguishing Canadian from American discourse,” Editing Canadian English reads. “A 2010 study (Kevin Heffernan et al.) found that colour and centre ‘seem to do more than their share of the ideological work’ in this regard. While there are several hundred words with standard British and American versions, ‘reference in the media to spelling variation and Canadian identity seldom go beyond discussing these two examples.’”
I started creating the table below by referring to Writing Tips Plus, The Canadian Press Stylebook and The Canadian Press Caps and Spelling before referring to Editing Canadian English, which has the most information. The table highlights the nine areas where Canadian, British and American spellings are most likely to vary.
Variant spellings by category
Word family
CanadianOxford spelling
Concise Oxford(British) spelling
Merriam-Webster(American) spelling
Words with -our or -or
labour
honour
humour
laborious
honorary
humorous
labour
honour
humour
laborious
honorary
humorous
labor
honor
humor
laborious
honorary
humorous
Words with -re or -er
centre
fibre
sombre
meter (device)
metre (metric unit)
centre
fibre
sombre
meter (device)
metre (SI unit)
center
fiber
somber
meter (all uses)
Words with -yze, -yse, -ize or -ise and their derived forms
analyze
paralyze
organize
analysis
paralysis
organization
analyse
paralyse
organise
analysis
paralysis
organisation
analyze
paralyze
organize
analysis
paralysis
organization
Words with -ce or -se
defence
offence
licence (noun)
license (verb)
practice (noun)
practise (verb)
defence
offence
licence (noun)
license (verb)
practice (noun)
practise (verb)
defense
offense
license (nounand verb)
practice (nounand verb)
Words with double or single “l” and their derivatives
instill table 1 note *
enrol
fulfillmenttable 1 note *
instalment
instil
enrol
fulfilment
instalment
instill
enroll
fulfillment
installment
Words with double or single consonants in the past tense
travelled
labelled
marshalled
benefited
budgeted
targeted
travelled
labelled
marshalled
benefited
budgeted
targeted
traveled
labeled
marshaled
benefited
budgeted
targeted
Words with single vowels or diphthongs (e.g., “ae” and “oe”)
encyclopedia
hemorrhage
pediatric
aesthetictable 1 note *
hors d’oeuvre
manoeuvre
encyclopaedia
haemorrhage
paediatric
aesthetic
hors d’oeuvre
manoeuvre
encyclopedia
hemorrhage
pediatric
aesthetic
hors d’oeuvre
maneuver
Words in which the silent “e” is deleted or kept before a suffix
aging
judgment
lovable
sizable
likeabletable 1 note *
saleabletable 1 note *
acknowledgementtable 1 note *
ageing
judgement
lovable
sizeable
likeable
saleable
acknowledgement
aging
judgment
lovable
sizeable
likable
salable
acknowledgment
Loan words with traditional or anglicized plural forms
tableauxtable 1 note *
châteaux
formulaetable 1 note *(math and chemistry)
referendums
appendicestable 1 note *
indexes (back of book)
indicestable 1 note *(technical)
formulas (not math and chemistry)
tableaux
chateaux
formulae (math and chemistry)
referendums
appendices
indexes (back of book)
indices (technical)
formulas (not math and chemistry)
tableaux
châteaus
formulas (all uses)
referenda
appendixes
indexes (all uses)
Table 1 note(s)
Table 1 note *
Canadian Press differs from the Canadian Oxford Dictionary.
Return to table 1 note * referrer
Source : Blogue Nos langues (billets de collaborateurs et collaboratrices)
Canadian spelling challenge: Are you an “adviser” or an “advisor”?
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A quiz on Canadian spelling.
Choose the preferred Canadian spelling for each set of words.
1.
anemia, anaemia or anemeia
anemiaanaemiaanemeia2.
vaporise, vapourize or vaporize
vaporisevapourizevaporize3.
jugement, judgment or judgement
jugementjudgmentjudgement4.
signaler or signaller
signalersignaller5.
catalog, catallog or catalogue
catalogcatallogcatalogue6.
maneuvre, manoeuver, manoeuvre or maneuver
maneuvremanoeuvermanoeuvremaneuver7.
mold, mould or molde
moldmouldmolde8.
adviser or advisor
adviseradvisor
Source : Jeux du Portail linguistique du Canada
The final consonant before a vowel: When to double it
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An English-language quiz on doubling the final consonant before a vowel
In English, when we add an ending that begins with a vowel (-ed, -ing, etc.) to a word that ends in a consonant, we sometimes double that consonant. But sometimes we don't! Do you know when to double? See if you can tell whether the words are correctly spelled in the questions below.1. occurredcorrectincorrect2. stooppedcorrectincorrect3. acquittalcorrectincorrect4. benefitedcorrectincorrect5. preferrencecorrectincorrect6. gumycorrectincorrect7. commitalcorrectincorrect8. indentingcorrectincorrect9. fittedcorrectincorrect10. maddencorrectincorrect
Source : Jeux du Portail linguistique du Canada
Canadian spelling challenge: Spot the preferred spelling!
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A quiz on Canadian spelling.
Choose the preferred Canadian spelling for each set of words.1. pyjamas, pajamas or pijamaspyjamaspajamaspijamas2. story, storie or storey (a level of a building)storystoriestorey3. program, programe or programmeprogramprogrameprogramme4. glamor or glamourglamorglamour5. yoghurt, yogourt or yogurtyoghurtyogourtyogurt6. whiskey, whisky or wiskeywhiskeywhiskywiskey7. license or licence (noun)licenselicence
Source : Jeux du Portail linguistique du Canada
Spellbound: Is it “gray” or “grey”?
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A quiz on Canadian spelling.
Are you sometimes baffled by English spelling? If so, this quiz may just give you a helping hand! Choose the correct or preferred Canadian spelling. Good luck!1. The court rendered a in favour of the claimant.judgementjudgment2. your reasons before rejecting Olivier's proposal.AnalyzeAnalyse3. It is increasingly common for babies to be delivered by .CaesareanCesarean4. The CEO decided to the company's operations as part of her restructuring plan.centralizecentralise5. The stylized lily on many of Canada's flags and shields is called a .fleur-de-lysfleur-de-lis6. My philosophy professor did not see the world in black and white, but in shades of .graygrey7. the message was illegible, I had to guess its true meaning.Inasmuch asIn as much as
Source : Jeux du Portail linguistique du Canada
practice, practise
The preferred Canadian spelling for the noun is practice (with a c). André had soccer practice every Tuesday, rain or shine. Is Aviva engaged in the practice of law? The preferred Canadian spelling for the verb is practise (with an s). Do our leaders practise what they preach? No, Aviva practises medicine. The participles are spelled practised (with an s) or practising (with an s). This medical journal is an essential reference for practising physicians.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
manoeuvre, maneuver
The spelling manoeuvre is preferred in Canada and Britain, while maneuver prevails in the United States. Note that the last e is dropped in these combined forms—manoeuvring, manoeuvrable and manoeuvrability. The preposition around is often employed with the verb manoeuvre. The archeologists had to manoeuvre carefully to avoid damaging the architectural relics. The crowd cheered as the pilot manoeuvred the first ship into the harbour. Charlene manoeuvres around the defence to score the winning goal. With careful manoeuvring, Stan was soon in line for a promotion. The new tires improved manoeuvrability on the snowy road. To practise manoeuvring the puck, Souleymane plays hockey at the outdoor rink in his neighbourhood.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
licence, license
In Canadian usage, the noun ends in –ce: licence. Jenny got her driver’s licence yesterday! And the verb ends in –se: license. Is your establishment licensed to sell alcoholic beverages to the public? However, Americans prefer the spelling license in both cases.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
spelling: words ending in “-ise” and “-ize”
The following are the only common words ending in –ise (apart from words ending in the suffix -wise): advertise advise apprise arise chastise circumcise comprise compromise demise despise devise disenfranchise disfranchise disguise enfranchise enterprise excise exercise franchise guise improvise incise merchandise mortise premise reprise revise supervise surmise surprise televise Note that the suffix -ise cannot be replaced with -ize in the words listed above. Use the suffix -ize for most other words, including civilize, criticize, italicize, itemize, memorize and organize.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
cozy, cosy
The Americans favour the spelling cozy, while the British prefer cosy. Both spellings are used in Canada. A well-insulated house is cozy (or cosy) all winter long.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
analyze, analyse
The spellings analyze and analyse are both used by Canadian writers. However, there is a growing trend among Canadians to choose the ending -yze for such words as analyze, catalyze, dialyze and paralyze. Analyze (or Analyse) your reasons before rejecting Olivier’s proposal.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
Spellbound: Choose the correct spelling!
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A quiz on Canadian spelling.
Are you sometimes baffled by English spelling? If so, this quiz may just give you a helping hand! Choose the correct or preferred Canadian spelling. Good luck!1. Some people say that is the most friendly city in New Brunswick.FrederictonFredricton2. Karun's achievements were at the banquet.recognizedrecognised3. The employee was asked to write three pages, or , on sustainable development.there-aboutsthereabouts4. We can go you like for dinner.where everwherever5. He was sent to with the interest groups.liaiseliase6. The supervisor was with the employee's performance.disatisfieddissatisfied7. It is best not to rush into a project without a work plan.head-longheadlong
Source : Jeux du Portail linguistique du Canada
grey, gray
Canadians prefer the spelling grey, although gray is also correct. Grey is the preferred spelling in Britain, while gray is favoured in the United States. A tolerant and forgiving person, my aunt never saw the world in black and white, but always in shades of grey. Always check the spelling of proper names. The Grey Cup was named for an early governor general. The “Indigenous” conservationist Grey Owl was in fact an Englishman named Archie Belaney. On the doctor’s desk were a dog-eared copy of Gray’s Anatomy and a poetry book open to Gray’s Elegy in a Country Churchyard.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
honor, honorary, honour, honourary
In Canada, honour is the preferred spelling for the noun and the verb. The National Peacekeeping Monument on Sussex Drive was erected to honour (or in honour of) United Nations peacekeepers. Although honourary is sometimes encountered and is recognized by the Canadian Oxford Dictionary as a variant spelling, the preferred spelling in Canada and elsewhere in the world is honorary. Jack Hodgins received an honorary doctorate from the University of British Columbia in 1995.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
behaviour, behavioural, behaviourism
In such words as behaviour, Canadians generally prefer the British ending -our to the American variant -or. Market research provides statistics on consumer behaviour. However, the u may be retained or dropped in the following terms derived from behaviour: behavio(u)ral, behavio(u)rism and behavio(u)rist. Professor Martin discussed the differences between psychoanalytical and behavioural (or behavioral) analyses. The study of behaviourism (or behaviorism) focusses on observable behaviours. B.F. Skinner, the behaviourist (or behaviorist), was known for measuring rates of response.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
check, cheque
Check is the correct spelling for a check mark, a claim check and the verb check. Place a check mark next to the correct answer. Please check the pressure in the right front tire. For the bank order, the preferred Canadian spelling is cheque, while check is favoured in the United States. Ira sent a cheque to Corel for the new software.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
hiccup
Hiccup is the preferred Canadian spelling for both the noun and the verb. The spelling hiccough is no longer in common use. The verb forms may be written hiccuping or hiccupping, hiccuped or hiccupped. Be consistent within each piece of writing. She hiccupped for hours and hours, with no relief. Jean-Pierre was able to stop my hiccuping with a single glance: it was truly magic! Write the noun hiccup in the plural when referring to an involuntary spasm resulting in a series of coughlike sounds. She had the hiccups for hours and hours, with no relief. A hiccup can also refer to a minor difficulty, a temporary interruption or break. After a hiccup in early February, the Vancouver Stock Exchange rallied, making up for previous losses. Even on cold, damp mornings, my old BMW would start without a hiccup.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
spelling: international variations
There are hundreds of words that have variant spellings in different parts of the English-speaking world, the principal cleavage being between the United Kingdom and the United States. Partly as a result of our historical links with Britain and our proximity to the United States, Canadian spelling has tended to waver between the forms used in these two countries, so that, to this day, there is no clearly established Canadian standard. Differences between British and American spelling While a list of words that have variant spellings in British and American practice would run into the hundreds and still not be exhaustive, the great majority of them fall into a few well-defined classes, as listed below. verbs ending in ise/ize and their derived forms British: civilise, civilisation; organise, organisation; specialise, specialisation American: civilize, civilization; organize, organization; specialize, specialization verbs ending in single l/double l and their derivatives British: instil; fulfil, fulfilment; enrol, enrolment American: instill; fulfill, fulfillment; enroll, enrollment double l/single l in the past tense of verbs British: counselled; labelled; travelled American: counseled; labeled; traveled nouns ending in our/or British: colour; honour; favour American: color; honor; favour nouns ending in re/er British: centre; fibre; theatre American: center; fiber; theater nouns in ce/se British: defence; offence; pretence American: defense; offense; pretense Note: British spelling also makes a distinction between certain noun and verb forms that is not maintained in American spelling. Thus, British licence (noun), license (verb) and practice (noun), practise (verb); American license and practice for both forms. treatment of the digraphs ae and oe in words derived from Greek and Latin British: anaemia; encyclopaedia, diarrhoea, oecumenical American: anemia, encyclopedia, diarrhea, ecumenical Canadian spelling The recommended spelling authority is a reliable Canadian dictionary such as the Canadian Oxford Dictionary. It is important to choose one and use it consistently. The Canadian Oxford Dictionary is based on research into Canadian usage, contains specifically Canadian terms and reflects the usage of most federal government departments and agencies more closely than do American or British dictionaries. When the dictionary lists two spellings for a word in the same entry, choose the one entered first. When two spellings are given separate entries, choose the primary spelling, which is the one followed by the definition (the variant simply refers the reader to the primary entry). For scientific and technical words not in the Canadian Oxford, check Webster’s Third New International Dictionary. In light of these recommendations, use the following variant spellings: endings in ize, ization; double l in verbs like fulfill (exception: enrol); double l in words such as fulfillment (exception: enrolment); double l in travelled, etc.; endings our, re, and ce for nouns (exception: pretense); and e for digraphs (exceptions: aesthetic and onomatopoeic). However, be careful to respect the official spelling of names of U.S. institutions: e.g. Department of Defense, Center for Disease Control. Note The spelling rules and lists of words presented in our articles are intended to supplement, not replace, the use of the spelling authority you choose. The important point with respect to spelling is to be consistent in your written work unless a good reason exists for using variant or archaic spellings.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
fibre, fiber
Canadians favour the ending re for fibre and compound words such as fibreglass, while Americans prefer the spellings fiber and fiberglass. The fibre of the hemp plant is used to make durable clothing. Fibreglass consists of fine filaments of glass.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
matte, mat, matt
A dull finish—as opposed to a shiny or glossy finish—on photos, paint or other surfaces is said to be matte. Do you want your photos printed on glossy or matte paper? Hard–wearing oil–based paints with a matte finish are practical because fingerprints don’t show. The spelling mat is common in the United States: This mat foundation is excellent for oily skin. Matt is another spelling variation, used primarily in Britain: Gillian chose a lilac paint with a matt finish for the walls of her flat.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
favour, favourable, favouritism
In such words as favour, Canadians generally prefer the British ending ‑our to the American ending –or (as in favor). Union members voted 92% in favour of accepting the new contract. Words formed from the root favour are also usually written with the ‑our spelling in Canada. Paola wore her best suit to the interview, hoping to make a favourable impression. Charlottetown is the favourite destination of many Quebecers. A governor general is not permitted to show any political favouritism.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
offence, offense, offensive
Canadians prefer the British spelling offence to the American spelling offense, but both are acceptable. Jackie was convicted of three offences under the Highway Traffic Act. The best defence is a good offence. Offensive, however, is always spelled with an s. Would you find it offensive to be described as “a woman of a certain age”? Yes, I would.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
et cetera, etcetera, etc.
(A similar topic is discussed in French in the article etc./et cetera) The Latin term et cetera (“and the rest”) is usually written as two words in Canadian English. However, the one-word spelling etcetera is also correct. The abbreviation for this term is etc. (Note that the c comes last; the misspelling ect. is a common error.) Because it has become part of the English language, this term is not placed in italics, whether it is written in full or abbreviated. Use Et cetera and its more common abbreviation, Etc., are used to show that a list of at least two items is incomplete. The list may include either things or people: Karen tries not to eat chips, chocolate, et cetera, even though she loves junk food. Bart had read many bestselling Canadian authors: Michael Ondaatje, Margaret Laurence, Wayson Choy, etc. Etc.can also be used at the end of a bulleted list: Michael Ondaatje Margaret Laurence Wayson Choy etc. Since the expressions for example and such as already indicate that a list is incomplete, et cetera and Etc.should not be used at the end of a list introduced by either of these expressions or by the abbreviation e.g. Incorrect: Al often picks locally grown fruit, such as apples or strawberries, etc. Correct: Al often picks locally grown fruit, such as apples or strawberries. Correct: Al often picks locally grown fruit: apples, strawberries, etc. Note: Some guides suggest avoiding the use of etc. in formal writing. As an alternative, you can use such as to introduce a list, or follow the list with a phrase such as “and so on”: Maneesha loves any sports activities involving water, such as sailing, swimming and surfing. Maneesha loves any sports activities involving water: sailing, swimming, surfing and so on. Comma with et cetera A comma is used before et cetera and its abbreviation, etc.: I dislike doing yard work: mowing the grass, trimming the hedge, et cetera. When this term appears in the middle of a sentence, it takes a comma after it as well as before it: Yard work can fill up the summer; mowing the grass, trimming the hedge, etc., takes a lot of time. Period after etc. The abbreviation Etc. always ends with a period, regardless of any additional punctuation that may follow: Karen tries not to eat chips, chocolate, etc., even though she loves junk food. Avoid using feminine or masculine pronouns to personify animals, events, ships, etc.: [followed by a list of examples] Travellers should not carry sharp objects in their carry-on luggage (scissors, pocket knives, nail clippers, etc.). If etc. ends a sentence that takes a period, only one period is used: At the staff picnic, the employees ate, played football, chatted, etc.Source : Writing Tips Plus (difficultés et règles de la langue anglaise)
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